Classroom Management, Management of Student Conduct, Effective Praise Guidelines, and a Few Things to Know About ESOL Thrown in for Good Measure

The evidence is irrefutable, Surveys of graduates of education schools and colleges indicate that the #1 area of concern of new teachers is their feelings of inadequacy in managing classrooms. Despite clinical experiences, student teaching, and other observations in classroom settings, this problem has persisted for decades. There is no magic elixir that will confer skill in this area of professional responsibility. We only wish there were.

Classroom management and management of student conduct are skills that teachers acquire and hone over time. These skills almost never "jell" until after a minimum of few years of teaching experience. To be sure, effective teaching requires considerable skill in managing the myriad of tasks and situations that occur in the classroom each day. Skills such as effective classroom management are central to teaching and require "common sense," consistency, a sense of fairness, and courage. These skills also require that teachers understand in more than one way the psychological and developmental levels of their students. The skills associated with effective classroom management are only acquired with practice, feedback, and a willingness to learn from mistakes. Sadly, this is often easier said than done. Certainly, a part of this problem is that there is no practical way for education students to "practice" their nascent skills outside of actually going into a classroom setting. The learning curve is steep, indeed.

As previously mentioned, personal experience and research indicate that many beginning teachers have difficulty effectively managing their classrooms. While there is no one best solution for every problem or classroom setting, the following principles, drawn from a number of sources, might help. Classroom teachers with many years of experience have contributed to an understanding of what works and what doesn't work in managing classrooms and the behavior of students. The following information represents some of the things that good classroom teachers do to maintain an atmosphere that enhances learning. It is written in straightforward, non-preachy language, and will not drive you to distraction with its length. I think most students appreciate that. With that in mind, I truly hope this information is useful to you.

The Classroom

Tip: Distractions in the classroom are deadly. To help avoid distractions, sit near the front of the class. You're less likely to miss something important, and there are far less distractions at the front than any other location.

Tip: Think! Thinking is one of the most important things you can do in class. If you just sit there passively, and not think, class can be deadly. Think about what the teacher is saying BEFORE writing down anything. Writing down each word is a WASTE OF TIME. Reorganize in your mind what the teacher says, and then write it down. This way you will be connecting the teacher's words with HOW you think. If you do this, your notes will make a lot more sense later on.

Tip: Pay attention to the course outline or syllabus. Generally, important points and materials are referenced here and repeated. Don't be afraid to ask the teacher if there is something you don't understand. Most teachers will be glad to clarify for you.

Preparing for Class

Tip: Efficient students do not underline! Underlining is not a productive way to emphasize textbook material. It's best to use a highlighter.

Tip: Read the table of contents of your texts carefully. If the textbooks have chapter summaries, read them first! If you don't understand the material from the summaries, go back and highlight. Take notes on what you have highlighted and review your notes. Tip: Break study material into short segments of length dependent on its difficulty. Remember, concise notes are more powerful than copious notes. Think about the material! Then take notes on what you don't know or are not sure of.

Test Taking

Tip: For essay examinations, try the "memory dump" technique. If permitted, write down everything you've memorized - facts, names, dates, ideas, events, and so on BEFORE you do anything else. Sometimes reading through the essay questions can distract you from what you've studied. The "memory dump" technique requires that you write down everything possible BEFORE you begin writing essay answers. This way, you are less likely to forget something important.

A Final Word

The study skills presented here depend on one thing, and that is your willingness to WANT to improve and do well in school. If you really don't want to make the effort and sacrifice, no amount of suggestions, ideas, or outlines can help much. You are the one who is responsible for your education, and effective study skills can help you.

Power Studying Tips for College Students

The following tips have proven to be extremely powerful guides for organizing, thinking, studying, and learning in college. They represent the best advice of successful college students. They can also work for high school students.

Study Space

Tip: Your study space should be as quiet and comfortable as possible. Avoid studying in noisy places such as cafeterias, recreation rooms, or lounges.

Tip: When studying, keep a waste basket handy.

Tip: Have a consistent place for everything, and above all, keep it there!

Tip: Have everything needed for studying handy beforehand. Don't waste valuable time looking for books, notes, of other information. After you have assembled the items you need, put them where you can reach them easily.

Study Habits

Tip: Begin studying no less than 30-90 minutes after a meal.

Tip: Never study within 30 minutes of going to sleep.

Tip: Prioritize! Make a list of what you intend to study, prioritize the list, and stick to it!

Tip: If possible, study no more than 30-40 minutes at a stretch. Many students retain more by studying for short periods with breaks in between. It all depends on what you're trying to study, but generally, after a period of study, take a break.

Tip: Take study breaks away from your desk or wherever you are studying. Let the break be a time to think about other things. Use some break time to reflect, not constantly review what you have just studied.

Writing Themes and Reports

Reviewing the Topic

Students usually have some freedom to choose the subject of themes or reports. When you make this choice, be sure that the topic is acceptable to the teacher, and is as interesting to you as possible. Another consideration is that of availability of resource material. Your task is made much easier when there is a good amount of reference and resource material available.

Using Correct Punctuation and Grammar

As in writing essays questions, good grammar and punctuation are a must. Most students use word processors to write papers. Be sure to use the spell checker that almost all word processors have built in. Many word processors also have some sort of grammar checker. Learn to use a grammar checker, as it can point out serious flaws in your writing and help you become a better writer. Most grammar checkers explain the grammar rules that apply to the suggested corrections to your writing.

Gathering Materials Before You Write

Before you begin writing, assemble the materials you will need. Use index cards, notes, bibliographies, summaries, reports and reviews as part of your preparation process. Using index cards for references is an excellent way to organize your materials. Computer database programs can also help you classify and organize reference materials.

Preparing an Outline and Writing the Paper

Once you have your topic, have gathered and organized your materials, it is time to outline your paper. Put your outline on paper! Don't make the mistake of trying to keep everything in your head. Make your outline in the form of main headings or ideas with sub-headings fleshing out the flow of the paper. Using the outline as a guide begin writing begin by asking yourself what the paper is going to say and what conclusions you want to reach. Doing this ahead of time will help keep you focused and prevent you from straying from the purpose of the paper. Making up the outline as you go along almost always results in a less than satisfactory product. Writing is important in high school and is a key to success in college and in many professions. Become a good writer by writing, revising, and reviewing your work. Don't be afraid to ask other students to critique your work. Try to write in your own natural style, be aware that most good writers go through many revisions, and be prepared to do the same. Writing and test-taking are the end results of developing good study skills. There is no magic formula for success. If you follow the suggestions in this guide, apply them and think about them, you'll have taken a giant step toward becoming a successful student.

Essay Examinations

Planning your time in answering essay questions is more important than in objective type tests. The general rule is not to get carried away on one or two questions to the extent that you cannot answer that other questions in the time allowed. Read through the entire examination first. Get a feel for the questions you are expected to answer. If the exam allows you to choose from a number of questions, be sure to number your answers exactly to match the questions.

When you follow directions for an essay exam, pay attention to the key words the instructor has included. Such words as "list," "describe," "compare and contrast," and "outline" have special meaning. Don't "write around" the question but answer it directly. If a question asks you to list something, don't write a narrative about it. Answering essay questions directly is always the best policy.

After scanning the list of questions to be answered, choose the ones you know most about. A good idea is to prepare an outline of your answers. The outline will help you remember important ideas and facts to be included in your response. Another technique is to do a "memory-dump." This technique is discussed in the last section of this guide, "Power Study Tips."

Good handwriting is an absolute essential. If your cursive writing is very hard to read, try printing instead. Most instructors value clear handwriting. Grammar, punctuation, and spelling also count. Well-written grammatically correct answers almost always receive higher grades than poorly written grammatically incorrect answers, even though the answers themselves are the same.

Taking Examinations

Taking Examinations

Objective Examinations

Surveying

Survey any objective examination to find out what types of questions are being asked. Surveying helps you to know what to expect.

Knowing the Ground Rules

Always read directions! Indicate your answers exactly the way the directions state. Make sure your answers are clear. Determine what the scoring rules for the test are and follow them to your advantage. For example, if wrong answers are penalized, don't guess unless you can reduce the choices to two.

Answering Easy Questions First

Answering easy (to you) questions first is the best strategy. If you stumble over difficult questions for too long a time, you may not be able to complete the exam.

Picking out Key Words

Objective examination questions usually contain one or more key words. A key word or group of words are those on which the truth or falsity of a statement hinges. Learn to spot the key words in the statement that define the meaning. If a statement contains two clauses, one of which is false, the whole statement is false. Usually, two-statement true-false questions are either both true or both false.

Reading Multiple-Choice Questions

Multiple choice questions are essentially true-false questions arranged in groups. Usually, only one alternative is correct. Your job is to pick the alternative that is more nearly true than the others. Read multiple-choice questions the same way as for true-false. Eliminate obvious false choices.

Reading Other Types of Questions

The methods used to answer true-false and multiple choice questions apply to matching questions as well. Always scan the entire list of alternatives before matching any. As in the other types of questions, try to identify key words in each list and test them. Completion questions require you to provide a word or phrase. When you encounter completion questions, choose your words carefully. If you don't know the answer, give it your best guess, as often times such responses get at least partial credit.

Taking Lecture Notes

Surveying, Questioning, Listening

Taking accurate and concise lecture notes is essential. Develop the habit of taking notes using appropriate methods described earlier in the SQ3R technique. For example, when you listen to a lecture, formulate questions as you listen. Your main job in taking lecture notes is to be a good listener. To be a good listener, you must learn to focus and concentrate on the main points of the lecture. Get them down, and then later reorganize them in your own words. Once you have done this, you have set the stage for successful reviewing and revising.

Reviewing and Revising

As you prepare for examinations, tests, or other assessments, you should spend time reviewing and revising your lecture notes. Begin the process by reviewing your notes right after a lecture. If you wait too long, you may discover that the notes just don't make sense. Don't hesitate to revise your notes based on the review process.

Research Notes

Any form of note-taking that requires compilation of information by categories, rather than in narrative form is best done using index cards. You can sort, edit and arrange index cards to suit your particular study needs. The most important point in using cards is to indicate the correct reference or topic at the top of the card. Use the cards for study, review, to help organize information for papers, reports, or projects. An even better idea, if you have a personal computer, is to organize your categorical information in a database. Once you set it up, finding, updating and adding new information is quite easy. If you have a printer, you can print out your notes in a variety of ways

The Process of Study

How to use your time

Time is the most valuable resource a student has. It is also one of the most wasted of resources. The schedule you develop should guide you in how to allocate the available time in the most productive manner. Sticking to your schedule can be tough. Don't dribble away valuable time. Avoiding study is the easiest thing in the world. It's up to you to follow the schedule you prepared. A good deal of your success in high school or college depends on this simple truth.

Where to study

You can study anywhere. Obviously, some places are better than others. Libraries, study lounges or private rooms are best. Above all, the place you choose to study should not be distracting. Distractions can build up, and the first thing you know, you're out of time and out of luck. Make choosing a good physical environment a part of your study habits.

Strategies

Thinking skills

Everybody has thinking skills, but few use them effectively. Effective thinking skills cannot be studied, but must be built up over a period of time. Good thinkers see possibilities where others see only dead-ends. If you're not a good thinker, start now by developing habits that make you ask yourself questions as you read. Talk to other students who you feel are good thinkers. Ask them what it is they do when they think critically or creatively. Often times, you can pick up valuable insights to help you become a better thinker.

The SQ3R method

The SQ3R method has been a proven way to sharpen study skills. SQ3R stands for Survey, Question, Read, Recite, Review. Take a moment now and write SQ3R down. It is a good slogan to commit to memory to carry out an effective study strategy.

Survey - get the best overall picture of what you're going to study BEFORE you study it in any detail. It's like looking at a road map before going on a trip. If you don't know the territory, studying a map is the best way to begin.

Effective Study skills are about more than understanding

Effective Study skills are about more than understanding

Effective study skills must be practiced in order for you to improve. It is not enough to simply "think about" studying; you have to actually do it, and in the process use information from what you do to get better. This is the central idea of this page. All that follows depends on this single concept. There is a saying that goes like this: "Practice doesn't make perfect; perfect practice makes perfect." If you want to be an achiever, take this saying to heart.

The value of a schedule

Before you even begin to think about the process of studying, you must develop a schedule. If you don't have a schedule or plan for studying, then you will not have any way of allocating your valuable time when the unexpected comes up. A good, well thought out schedule can be a lifesaver. It's up to you to learn how to develop a schedule that meets your needs, revise it if necessary, and most important, follow it.

A schedule saves time

All schedules should be made with the idea that they can be revised. A good schedule keeps you from wandering off course. A good schedule, if properly managed, assigns time where time is needed, but you've got to want to do it!

Making every hour count

A schedule should take into account every class, laboratory, lecture, social event, and other work in which you engage. There are givens such as classes and so on that have to be incorporated. You must focus on the other "free time" available and how you will use it. Make a weekly schedule and block off the 24 hour day in one hour increments. Indicate times for classes, labs, lectures, social, and work time. Also block off a period for sleeping each day. With what is left over, plan time for study. This gives you a rough road map of the time available. Of course, you can revise your schedule as circumstances warrant.

When to study

The problem of when to study is critical. A good rule of thumb is that studying should be carried out only when you are rested, alert, and have planned for it. Last minute studying just before a class is usually a waste of time.

Studying for lecture courses

If your study period is before the lecture class, be sure you have read all the assignments and made notes on what you don't understand. If the study period is after the lecture class, review the notes you took during class while the information is still fresh.

Studying for recitation courses

For classes that require recitation, such as foreign language, be sure to schedule a study period just before the class. Use the time to practice. Sometimes, practice with others can help sharpen your skills in a before-class study period.

Making and revising a schedule

Don't be afraid to revise your schedule. Schedules are really plans for how you intend to use your time. If your schedule doesn't work, revise it. You must understand that your schedule is to help you develop good study habits. Once you have developed them, schedule building becomes easier

A step-by-step guide to studying a modern play

Conventions

Conventions usually mean 'a set of rules' but in the case of drama, stage conventions are really an agreement between the playwright and the audience as to what is happening and how.

For example, a playwright may offer the convention that the audience is watching the life of a family through the imaginary 'fourth wall' of their home or that the actors sometimes pretend that the audience is not there and at other times will speak to them directly. Experiments with conventions are a characteristic of Modern Drama.

This describes in the broadest terms what actually happens in a play. Indeed, many modern playwrights have played games with this convention in that very little does appear to happen!

You need to distinguish between action and activity. The first concerns not only physical happenings but also psychological development, whereas the second describes the minutiae of what the actors do: move, sit, laugh, smoke etc.

watching the protagonist struggle with some predicament. At one time, we might have referred to the central character as hero or heroine, but in much Modern Drama the central character has so few of the qualities that we might have considered heroic that we often use the term anti-hero.

These do not have a specific meaning for drama: we all recognise them. Tensions between the characters are very often what makes a drama but much Modern Drama is concerned with characters that feel some sort of threat to their lives.

For example, the playwright David Campton described a number of his own plays as 'Comedies of Menace'. This, you may realise, is an ironic re-working of the expression 'Comedy of Manners' used to describe plays of the Restoration period, a period in which human beings lived in a world that was in some ways predictable.

By great contrast, many modern plays are concerned with people living in a world of obscure and sometimes un-identifiable menace.

Studying modern drama

Consider the following ideas:

1. Modern Drama is usually considered to begin with Ibsen

2. Studying modern drama uses many different skills

3. Drama is both an academic and a practical subject

4. You will need to read, reflect, observe and participate

5. You will also need to visit theatres and watch plays on film

6. Modern Drama is about YOUR WORLD

Let's take this final point and think about it for a moment.

Modern Drama concerns itself with human beings living in the age of technology; an age in which communications are complex and, supposedly better than at any time in history; an age in which religious and political beliefs are often at odds with conditions in society.

This is an age of extraordinary pressure and possibility. Modern playwrights often wrestle with these forces to give an image of life in the modern world.

These pages, based on Studying Modern Drama by Kenneth Pickering, will introduce you to the exciting world of modern drama, and is an ideal support for both individual and group study.

Answering problem questions

Identify the issues

The first step in producing a good answer to a problem question is to identify the issues. This is a matter of identifying what the question is about from a legal point of view. At the planning stage, you will need to be reading through the question with a view to spotting and noting the issues. Identifying the issues is essentially a process of analysis, which in this context means separating the question into its distinct parts recognising each fact and issue, and then ranking those facts and issues in terms of relevance and importance. At the writing stage you will write a short opening paragraph, setting out the issues you have identified and which you will then address in your answer.

The testing of skills begins with the reading of the problem question. First you need to break down the problem and identify the material facts. If, in the facts of the problem, you are told a child is seven years old ask: ‘Why have I been told this? What is the legal significance of this fact in the context of the question?’ The only true exception to the proposition that all the facts are included for a reason (namely to be commented upon in answering the question) is that some facts are included simply to make the story more readable. There is, however, also a quasi-exception, where facts are introduced by way of red herrings. Red herrings will only distract those who do not really understand the relevant law, and therefore their introduction is a perfectly legitimate way of testing the true extent of the students’ understanding. In other words, and being perfectly consistent with the general principle that all facts are mentioned for a reason, red herrings are introduced so that you may comment on them, even though your only comment will be to identify their irrelevance.

Secondly, you need to identify the legal issues raised by the facts. It may be that you consider the facts to be too far-fetched to be taken seriously. Two points arise. First, the facts of some of the most important legal cases are themselves quite improbable. Secondly, and perhaps more importantly, you must understand that the questions are constructed in order to bring out certain points, which the examiner expects you to be able to identify and discuss. This may well result in an intrinsically improbable story line; but the problem questions never pretend to be essays in social realism anyway.

Finally, you need to identify any legal claims and defences that the parties may have. A party who has no recognisable legal claim, or a party who does have such a claim but who will be met with a cast-iron legal defence, will have no legal redress. Evaluating possible claims and defences at the planning stage will not only help you to identify the contentious legal issues raised by the problem, but will also enable you to dispose of any straightforward and uncontentious issues in a sentence or two.

For more advice, seeon critical analysis.

Select the relevant law

At the planning stage, step two requires you to select the law, which is relevant to the issues identified at stage one. At the writing stage, this is made explicit when you state the law you have selected to support the legal claims and defences you have identified. Selecting the relevant law is a filtering process where you sift out any irrelevant law and retain only the law, which is pertinent to your answer.

The principal authorities in English law (and other common law jurisdictions) are statutes, delegated legislation, and case law, although in many subjects it will also be necessary to ask whether there are any relevant provisions of European Community law or of the European Convention on Human Rights as made relevant to the English legal system by the Human Rights Act 1998. It is important to bear in mind the weight of various authorities (in terms of court level) when selecting the law to support your arguments. Remember that no court can quash primary legislation and persuasive authorities (for example, cases decided by the Privy Council or the High Court of Australia) might influence a court to follow a particular line of reasoning, but do not bind it to do so.

Apply the law

The third step in the problem-solving process requires you to apply the relevant law to the materialfacts. It is your ability to do this convincingly that demonstrates the true extent of yourunderstanding. One type of classically bad answer simply reproduces, more or less accurately depending on the extent of your knowledge and understanding, all the law on the topic, with no attempt at selection or application. In terms of professional practice, the equivalent would be simply to read aloud to the client the whole of the relevant chapter from a textbook, and then claim that this amounts to giving the client legal advice.

Applying the law at the planning stage means considering how the law you have selected fits the material facts. Later, at the writing stage, you will apply the law to support your discussion, and thus demonstrate that you can construct a logical argument.

Linguistic and analytical skills

Quite apart from the capacity to work hard, law students require good linguistic and analytical skills. Although these may sound like, and in some cases will indeed be, two distinct skills, in practical terms they often merge into one. For example, take an Act of Parliament, which, among other things, prohibits the possession of obscene articles for publication for gain, except where publication is

‘justified as being for the public good on the ground that it is in the interests of science, literature, art or learning, or of other objects of general concern.’

Clearly this exception would apply to the depiction of nudity in classical art and to the publication of photographs of human genitals in medical textbooks. But what about cases involving articles which are plainly obscene on any sensible meaning of the word? Can the defence argue that such articles are nevertheless lawful because they help some people to release their frustrations through sexual fantasies, and that the consequent reduction in the number of sexual offences is plainly the object of general concern?

A linguistically perceptive response to this question would proceed on the following lines. If the exception applies to any ‘objects of general concern,’ why did Parliament specify the preceding categories (namely ‘science, literature, art or learning’)? Is it not reasonable therefore, to interpret the words ‘other objects of general concern’ as being limited to other things of the same kind as those, which are specified? Thus the argument for the defence does not justify the application of the exception.

Furthermore, and quite apart from purely linguistic considerations, when the content of the argument for the defence is analysed, it becomes plain that what is really being claimed is that the availability of obscene articles can be justified simply on the ground that they are obscene. It is difficult to see how anyone could reasonably regard this as a credible interpretation of an Act of Parliament, which was passed in order to subject obscene articles to strict controls.

As a final point on the need for good language skills, it may be useful to consider a classical legal anecdote. The story is told of a judge who, having listened patiently to an advocate who was making a long and learned submission, said, “Well, Mr Smith, having listened to all you have had to say, I must confess that I am none the wiser.’ ‘Perhaps not, my Lord,’ replied the advocate, ‘but at least your Lordship is better informed.’ Whether or not you find this funny may be a good indicator of whether you are sufficiently sensitive to nuances of meanings to be likely to succeed as a law student.

Skills required for success as a law student

Working hard

Law students require a variety of aptitudes and, to use a more specifically practical word, skills. Reduced to their most basic, what is required is an aptitude for hard work, coupled with an analytical mind, which enjoys the challenge of expressing difficult ideas clearly. Furthermore, there is no escaping the fact that much of the hard work will involve a great deal of reading and note-taking; and much of this, will, at least in the short term, be heavy going and unexciting. However, if undertaken properly, this work, will over a period of time, accumulate into a substantial body of knowledge, which can then be applied to the key tasks of writing essays and solving problems, by way of both coursework and examination.

It is important to emphasise the need for hard work as an essential part of studying law, because far too many students are tempted to think that they can succeed by relying on what they imagine to be their natural ability, without bothering to add the expenditure of effort. To take an analogy, some people prefer the more or less instant gratification, which comes from watching a television adaptation of a classic novel to the rather more laborious process of reading the novel itself. Those who prefer watching television to reading the book are less likely to study law successfully, unless they rapidly acquire a taste for text-based materials.

Learning the law

It is also important to emphasise that studying law is a cumulative process. This means that you must absorb, understand and retain at least the main principles of every subject that you study, so that you will be able to apply them to other subjects later on. For example, you will need a sound grasp of foundation subjects such as contract law and administrative law before you can progress successfully to subjects such as employment law and environmental law.

Incidentally, it is often said that lawyers neither know nor need to know any more law than other people, but that they simply need to know where to look it up. While it is of course, true that many lawyers do frequently look things up, there are various reasons why it is quite simply untrue to say that they neither know nor need to know any more law than other people do.

The first point is that, in common with members of other learned professions, lawyers are expected to know a lot of material. There are several reasons why this is so.

1. First, as a matter of psychology, clients are unlikely to have much confidence in lawyers who plainly know no law.

2. Secondly, lawyers who have to spend time on getting themselves onto an equal footing with their more knowledgeable competitors before they can start spending time on the key task of giving advice or providing other professional services will have to charge more than their competitors charge. It follows that lawyers who do not know the law will be at a commercial disadvantage against competitors who do know a lot of law, since those who know the least will have to charge the most.

3. Thirdly, having found the law, you need to be able to understand it. This requires both a good grasp of that area of law known as legal method (so that you can understand and apply the sources you have looked up), and a wider knowledge of the law relating to various topics. After all, there is no point in looking up a legal rule, which seems to dispose of your case if you are unaware of another and more authoritative rule, which will prevail.

Consider this example:

• Suppose your client’s widowed mother has died without leaving a will, and that your client is her only child. If you simply look up the Act of Parliament dealing with inheritance of property in situations where there is no will, you will conclude that your client is entitled to inherit the whole of his or her mother’s estate. However, suppose that your client killed his or her mother. This may have been by murder or manslaughter, or, perhaps more probably, by being the driver of a car in which the mother was a passenger and which was involved in an accident for which your client was responsible and as a result of which the mother died.

The Act of Parliament which lays down the rules of succession where there is no will makes no mention of the fact that those rules are subject to an additional set of rules, which seek to prevent people benefiting from their own wrongdoing. He additional rules, which originated in the courts but have since been developed by another Act of Parliament, may or may not (depending on all circumstances of the case) prevent your client from inheriting. It follows that a lawyer who merely identifies the first Act of Parliament, but who is unaware of the additional rules contained in both case law and the later Act of Parliament, may give bad advice.

Practical criticism

What is practical criticism?

“One of the things you will almost certainly have to do as a student of literature is ‘practical criticism’. Practical criticism is that exercise in which you are given a poem, or a passage of prose, or sometimes an extract from a play, that you have not seen before and are asked to write a critical analysis of it. Usually you are not told who wrote the poem or passage, and usually, too, you are not given any indication of what you might look for or say. We can sum it up, then, as criticism based on close analysis of a text in isolation.”

This content has been taken from by John Peck & Martin Coyle

Finding a way into a poem by finding a theme

The process of studying a poem can be divided into three main steps. Once you are familar with these steps, try the

1. Think about the text
When you have finished reading a text, think about it and ask yourself what common experiences it is dealing with: is it about love, war, marriage or revenge? By thinking logically and positively, use this step to help you overcome the first problem, I have read the text, now I should study it: how do I start? This step helps you find a way into understanding the text.

2. Analyse the text
First, identify words and phrases which led you to choose your theme. Now look at these closely, analysing in detail to see exactly how they portray the theme you are studying. In this step your ideas become more precise and detailed because you concentrate on finding the complexity of different elements which make up the major theme you are interested in.

3. Relate the part you have studied to the text as a whole
Finally, work out how the part you have studied in detail fits into the text as a whole. This step should confirm that the detailed ideas you have found are an important part of the whole work; and because you broaden your outlook again, you develop an understanding of how the complexity of the theme lives and develops through the whole extent of the text.

Exercise: Now try out a study-trail

You can practise these three steps for yourself using the study-trail below. As you work, you can compare your developing analysis with Nicholas Marsh's, author of at each stage. Your ideas will probably be different because you are developing your own train of thought. This does not matter - the individuality and variety of approaches in studying poetry is part of the excitement. Keep following the trail, developing ideas others have not thought of, or suddenly finding that you are on the same track.

This study-trail is about a short poem, so you can try it straight away by clicking on the following:

• Step 1: Think about the poem

What is a theme of this poem? Think of a big subject which is an important issue in every person’s life, which is a subject of this poem. (Remember, there can be more than one answer to this question).

If you want to see the theme the author, Nicholas Marsh chose, otherwise carry on to Step 2.

• Step 2: Analyse the poem

There will have been a phrase, or phrases, or some words, which led you to realise that the subject you have chosen as a theme is a theme of this poem. What are they?

If you want to see the words and phrases which led the author to choose his theme at this stageOtherwise, carry on.

Now look in detail at each of the phrases or words you have written in the box above, and make notes on each one. For each one, ask:

• What is the meaning (what does it say about the theme)?
• What is the ‘tone of voice’ (or the speaker’s ‘attitude’)? What kind of language is it (it may be legal language, or colloquial slang; it may be soft-sounding or clipped and harsh: try todescribe the kind of language)?
• Is there an which expresses or develops the meaning?

Learning a language

Languages for professional purposes

Students who already know they want to work in a particular part of the world have an easier choice. Remember though, that the people there may be bi-lingual. Its worth finding out what second language they speak. In countries that have had strong trade or colonial ties with other parts of the world it is common to find that some of the population still learn a language to a high level of proficiency.

Another point to remember is that you could be working with people who do not speak the official language of the country at all, but one of the regional languages. These may differ from one another in their spoken form but not in writing (as in China) or they may be completely different from the official one (as in India).

One way to prepare to learn a language for professional purposes is to take a general language course first and then a more specific one which concentrates on the language for particular jobs: tourism, health services, computing and so on.

Make sure the course you sign on for offers the version spoken currently in your part of the country. Everyday needs will determine your choice, not whether it is widely spoken. You might prefer a course that concentrates only on the spoken version of the language, so that you can make friends immediately, leaving the written form until later.

One of the reasons for learning a different language is so that the learner can be part of another culture. Some people want to do more than just live in another country; they want to be a complete part of that culture, perhaps even throwing away aspects of their own culture which they have come to dislike.

It is often difficult to sound exactly as you want to sound when speaking a new language. A saying from Ancient China seems relevant here, “Two separate entities can combine in such a way that each maintains its original unique characteristics, whereas if either of them is made the same as the other, both degenerate.” As a beginning language learner don’t be afraid to keep your own characteristics, many of which can contribute to the lives of people you meet when you become part of another speech community.

Reading about subjects, which have not been translated, or even reading subjects in the original when they have been translated, is a common reason for language learning. Many students of the Classics select Latin, Greek or Hebrew because they enjoy that period of history. Then there are religious reasons for studying ancient languages: Arabic for reading the Koran, Hebrew for the Old Testament and Greek for the New Testament of the Bible.

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Languages for enjoyment or a challenge

Some students may be fascinated by some aspect of a language such as the fact that the script is written from right to left as in Arabic or from top to bottom as in traditional Japanese. The whole appearance of a different script can be fascinating.

Look at examples of several languages with non-Roman scripts before making your choice. In Europe you could consider Russian and Greek or further afield there is Arabic, and the many scripts of India: Hindi (the national language), Urdu, Bengali and so on.

• The script.
• The pronunciation.
• Whether it is mainly phonetic.
• The textbook.
• The amount you are expected to cover in a year.

One way to measure relative difficulty is to find out the level you can expect to reach by the end of the course. You can do this by looking at the final examinations at the end of the previous year in several languages. Compare the difficulty of the passages to be translated from English.

A language different from your own will be more difficult in some respects but in other ways it will be easy. There is the novelty value and the fact you will probably put considerable effort into aspects that are new, such as pronunciation or seeing the relationship between characters and their meaning.

Why study economics?

Economics is interesting

Of course, not all economics is interesting to everyone. There are some people who are not really interested in understanding more about the world. This kind of person may well find economics boring. Similarly, not all economics is interesting, even to those who like economics. In some places, you have to think to get the benefit, and thinking can be hard work. If you are not in the mood to do this then it may fail to raise your interest. Even when you are willing to work, you may find some aspects less interesting than others. For us, the most boring part of economics is that devoted to the ways in which we calculate national income and output - National Income Accounting - though others do find this interesting. Sometimes economics fails to be interesting because its relevance is not made clear.

Economic theory is what gives the subject its strength. Subjects that lack theory are forced to become largely descriptive; this is sometimes interesting, but often shallow. The strength of economics as a subject is illustrated by the fact that it is one of the few subjects for which there is a Nobel Prize. Subjects such as law, sociology, marketing and business studies do not have this stature. The 2001 Oscar-winning film, A Beautiful Mind starring Russell Crowe was even based on the life of John Nash who won the Nobel Prize for Economics in 1994. or more information on the Nobel Prize and its winners.

A more serious reason for studying economics is that it helps you realise when politicians are talking academic nonsense. This is not infrequent. One of the great economists of the twentieth century, John Maynard Keynes, concluded his great book The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money by writing:

the ideas of economists and political philosophers, both when they are right and when they are wrong, are more powerful than is commonly understood. Indeed, the world is ruled by little else. Practical men, who believe themselves to be quite exempt from any intellectual influences, are usually the slaves of some defunct economist

Understanding economics will help you recognise this.

A look at almost any newspaper will show you how closely economics is linked to the real world, and how we cannot really understand the context of our lives unless we have some knowledge of the subject. Some examples can illustrate this:

• How do we know as a society how many pairs of jeans to produce?
• How many portions of fish and chips? How much beer?
• Why does it cost more to watch Manchester United play than it does to watch Stockport County?

The answers to all these questions – and millions others – derive from the economists’ use of demand-and-supply analysis. The conclusion is clear. You cannot understand the world around you unless you have some knowledge of economics in its various aspects.

Economics will give you some very useful mental tools and skills that will be helpful in many other aspects of life. Some of these skills are ‘overarching,’ such as the development of logical thought processes, whilst others are more specific to economics such as the ability to read and interpret economic arguments.

Studying economics helps people realise the difference between statements of fact and expressions of opinion. It also helps develop a logical way of thinking about economic issues and the ability to present statements in a reasoned and relevant way. The ability to present and discuss ideas, concepts and arguments in a clear and accurate manner is an important general skill that is valuable in a wide range of careers. So is the ability to evaluate decisions, arguments and the reliability of information. This is allied to the ability to process data relating to economics, including the collection and collation of data and their use and presentation to support and illustrate arguments or points of view. Writing reports, interpreting data and analysing arguments are central to economics. If you master these skills in your study of economics you will be able to use them in a wide range of contexts, not only as a student but also in your working life.

You will find economic graduates working in a very wide range of jobs. But economics is a subject that also leads to jobs where knowledge of the subject is very useful. Thus about one half of economics graduates go into jobs in the financial services industry. Some of these will work in the commercial banks where a degree in economics is particularly useful since it gives exemption from some bankers’ examinations. This also applies to some accountancy examinations, another source of employment for many graduates in economics. Many economists also work in other sectors of the financial services industry. Insurance companies, building societies and merchant banks all employ economists. In many of these careers knowledge of economics is combined with another area of study. In such cases, economics gives a strong theoretical underpinning to a wide range of careers.

Economists are widely employed in the public service, either as general recruits in the civil service or as specialist economists in the Government Economic Service. The senior members of this Service will advise ministers on the economic implications of alternative courses of action.

There are also overseas jobs for graduates in economics. The European Commission in Brussels and the OECD in Paris both employ a large number of economists. So do international agencies such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.

Writing history

Style

How you write is as important as what you write. Badly constructed sentences, errant punctuation and poor spelling will prevent the award of high marks. In these days of word-processors and spell-checkers, there is no excuse for poor spelling. A package like Microsoft Word also has grammar-checkers that will point out, for example, where you are writing in passive language. The active voice is almost always best because, as it uses fewer words, it is clearer and leaves less room for double meaning. Here are two examples, the first passive, and the second active:

• Caesar was stabbed by Brutus
• Brutus stabbed Caesar

A simple example, but the extra words of the passive voice can become crucial as sentences become longer. At the same time, however, the passive is necessary if the explanation is unclear. Thus, historians will often write, ‘It can be argued that . . .’

No matter how well you perform in seminars, or with the spoken word, you must present written arguments in clear, uncluttered and intelligible style. Why spend hours and hours writing an essay only to see it awarded a low mark because it was not spell-checked and proofread? Always read through your history assignments, checking for problems of form, style and content.

For more advice, see and the handy tips on

The language you use in history essays is very important. Try to use the correct language, but not the slang, of everyday speech. Do not try to be clever with your writing style just for the sake of it. At the same time, do build up your vocabulary. When you come across a new word in your reading, make a note of it and look it up in the dictionary. Only use that word when you are sure of its meaning and context. Never deliberately use long words as substitutes for short ones.

Never use words that are surplus to requirements. That means checking sentences and asking ‘are all those words necessary?’ Do not use foreign phrases or scientific words where simple English versions are available. Try to avoid jargon. Napoleon was an excellent general, but historians would not describe him as ‘cool’. Avoid using too many metaphors; try not to run metaphor after metaphor. When you use them, watch out for mixed metaphors. Do not use hackneyed metaphors that you have seen in print many times before.

Language can enhance or diminish. Do not say things that are offensive or obnoxious, unless there is some important reason for doing so (e.g. if you are quoting Hitler for an essay on Nazi Germany). It is worth bearing in mind the nostrums of political correctness when you are writing. Ask yourself: is there any gender, ethnic or class group that would be offended by my essay? But such terms as mankind, man and woman can be used in context. It is, however, perfectly proper to use the language of the historical actors themselves. More generally, the cult of political correctness can be so limiting and tedious that a more robust style of terminology may be preferred.

Do not be pompous or pretentious in your stylistic construction. For example:

• Don’t use "persons" for "people.”
• Watch out for archaic words like "heretofore.”

Beware of words that do not mean what you think they mean:

• Extant does not mean existing (or at least not until the third or fourth definition in the Oxford English Dictionary).
• Disinterested does not mean uninterested.
• Decimate means ‘to reduce by one-tenth.
• Criminals are hanged, pictures are hung.
• Imply and infer are not the same.

The written word is meant to convey meaning to the reader. Tendentiousness, hectoring and arrogance will raise the readers’ ire; poor-quality writing will simply send them mad.

Keep sentences short and compact. If you have not made your point in, say, fifteen or twenty words, you probably have not said it as crisply as you might, although qualifying clauses are often a sign of maturity. If you don’t know what a semi-colon is, for example, find out. Remember, it should be possible to remove a clause (words that occur in parenthesis: between commas, dashes or brackets) from a sentence without losing its integrity and meaning.

Understanding a "new" accent

Understanding a "new" accent

One difficulty students have in listening to lectures is understanding a "new" accent. Maybe your high school English teacher talked with one kind of accent and now your lecturers use a different one. In English speaking universities the staff come from many different countries and from different parts of the same country. This means that even though they are all speaking English it may take a week or two to get used to their voices.

Suggestions:

1. Look at the lecture topic on the course outline. Do you understand the title?

2. Find out the meaning of the topic before the lecture.

3. Read the textbook chapter on the topic.

4. Think about the questions you think the lecturer will be answering.

Understanding fast talkers

A second problem can be the speed of the lecturer's talking. Some students don't even know if what they are writing down is one word or two.

Handy tips

1. Ask if you can record the lecture. Some lecturers allow recordings but others don't.

2. Try to note key points like names, statistics and dates.

3. Use a capital letter instead of writing the key word every time it is mentioned. For example if the lecture is about water pressure just write WP each time.

4. Make up your own shorthand system for common words. Here are some that are commonly used. There are many more and we suggest reading more about taking notes so that you become efficient at it.

& = and
# = number
A = B = A equals B
A -> B = A leads to B
@ = at

5. Use plenty of space on the page as you take your notes. Make lists and sketches. You can add details later from your textbook.

6. Write down what you think you hear. Then later try saying it aloud if it doesn't make sense. Perhaps "be low" is really "below" for example.

Understanding jokes

As you will know from your own language, jokes depend on knowing a lot of things that are not said as well as understanding the words that are said. They also depend on the speaker and the listeners finding the same things funny. What sounds funny in one place may sound stupid in another.

• Suggestions

It is annoying to see other people laughing while you don't know why, but think of this. Some of the students who are laughing may not understand the joke either. People sometimes laugh along with the others just to look good. One day as you learn more about the country and its famous people, the names and events that everyone knows about and as your English improves, you will understand the jokes too. It just takes time.

Your first weeks at university

You will be able to budget effectively by paying your Hall bill each term.

2. You will have the benefit of a social life in Hall.

3. You will meet a wide range of other undergraduates.

4. You will probably be living close to, or on, your campus.

5. You will have a Hall Committee to represent your interests.

Cons:

1. You might not feel as if you have really achieved an independent life.

2. You might find that you are living some way from your friends.

3. You might be able to find a cheaper alternative.

4. You might feel that you can never get off campus to unwind.

5. Halls can feel restrictive and the food is not always inspiring.

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Do:

1. Look at our page for useful websites.

2. Check your mail and fill out every form that you receive.

3. Register with the library and the NUS.

4. Collect your password for access to the university computer system.

5. Make sure that your initial course choices are still available.

Don't:

1. Panic if it all seems overwhelming: it will soon become familiar.

2. Ignore the notice boards: they display essential information.

3. Miss your first meeting with your tutor, even if you have nothing much to say.

4. Sign up for too much at Freshers Fair: plan your time first.

5. Worry if your first set of marks is confusing: your tutor can explain them.

Ten essential places you should find in your first week at university

1. The library: register as soon as you can and browse around your subject shelves, periodical shelves and computerised catalogue system.

2. The IT resources centre: do you need to sign up for any courses?

3. The Students Union and Welfare Office: register with the NUS.

4. Your departmental secretary's office: get your face known.

5. The coffee rooms and canteen: essential meeting places.

6. The resources room within your department.

7. The computer rooms in your school or faculty.

Top tips for learning from lectures

Before the lecture

• prepare for lectures - find out what is in the books on the subject so that you are aware of what you do not need to note in the lecture
• form an opinion about the subject of the lecture
• set yourself questions and leave spaces to have these answered during the lecture

During the lecture

• listen to 'make sense' rather than to make notes
• listen for 'signposts' about what is coming next or for summaries of key points
• listen for answers to questions you set in advance
  write yourself questions so you can trace answers and information after the lecture
• make brief notes of essential points

After the lecture

• read your notes and fill in any gaps
• discuss the lecture with other people
• consider how the lecture changed or developed your opinions of the subject
• label and file your notes

Learning from lectures

The purpose of lectures

Lectures are an opportunity to find out how one lecturer makes sense of the wealth of information and research that has been undertaken on a topic. A good lecturer will use the lecture to give you an overview of the main themes, develop your understanding of the issues, guide you on how to find out more about the subject and the reading you need to undertake. You may also gain details of relevant current issues, explanations of complex material or questions to answer that develop your own thinking and research. The aim is not usually to give you a definitive and comprehensive set of 'facts' on the subject. You are expected to supplement the lecture with reading and interpretations of your own.

Lectures that develop understanding

The finer details of the subject should be available in lecture hand-outs, web-pages or in the recommended reading. This should mean that you do not have to spend the time in the lecture making detailed notes. If you have lecturers like this, your best strategy is:

• focus on listening to the lecture
• note how the different themes or issues interconnect, so you gain a good overall grasp of the subject
• make a brief note of key themes
• note any additional references
• read about the subject of the lecture before and after in order to pick up details

Information-rich lectures

Some lecturers will use the lecture to bombard you with information and expect you to take this in at speed. If so, most people will find it difficult to listen and take detailed notes, and it is unlikely that anybody will have a complete set of lecture notes. If you have lecturers like this, your best strategy is:

1. Browse through relevant text books before the lecture. This will give you an idea of what information is in the books - and which you may not need to note in the lecture. You can come back to this after the lecture.

2. It is hard to make sense of lectures where information content is high. Reading something about the subject in advance will help to make more sense of what is said.

3. Listen carefully for topic headings and references so that you can chase missing information after the lecture.

4. Resist the temptation to write everything down if you can avoid this. It is very hard to catch a complete set of lecture notes.

5. Form a group and go through the lecture notes so you can fill in gaps. Between you, you will have most of the information you need and discussing the notes will help you to understand the subject.

7 Tips for Coping with Finals

It’s that time again if you’re a college or graduate student — time for finals. It’s also time to self-sabotage, to get in your own way in terms of effective studying. We stress out more than usual, even when we’re on top of the material, because of the surrounding test-taking.

But you don’t have to stress out about final exams. You can actually do better (and feel better about your performance) if you keep the stress at bay and focus on simple study skills over the next few weeks.

Here’s a few tips for coping with finals to get you started. None of these are going to be eye-opening or stuff you don’t already know… But sometimes we need to be reminded of the things we already know, to drive home their importance.

1. Schedule your time to focus on studying.

Look, we all understand how college isn’t all about studying — it’s also about learning to enjoy your independence and have a full social life with your friends. But even if you’ve blown off a lot of the reading over the semester, now’s the time to hunker down and hit the books.

Actually sit down and write out a schedule (or do it in Google Calendar or what-not). Plan out every hour of every day for the next week or two. Then hold yourself to it.

For study time, set specific goals for each study session throughout the day, too. For instance, “Tuesday morning, I’m going to review Chapters 14, 15 and 16, write summaries of these chapters, and finish re-reading my class notes covering this material.”

2. Don’t blow off

Sleep is the body’s and brain’s way of re-energizing itself. Your brain cells renew and studies show that people who don’t get adequate sleep do worse on cognitive and memory tasks. All of this points to the downside of the all-nighter. If you feel like you just have to do it, try not to do it more than once. Chances are, whatever you’re cramming for overnight is going to compete with your brain’s fatigue by staying up all night. You may feel like you’re “winning,” but it’s probably a false belief on your part.

Spend more time studying during the day (see #1), and an all-nighter won’t be necessary.

3. Shut down social networking and gaming.

I hate to say it, but your computer (or smartphone) during finals week is likely going to be your biggest distraction. We don’t multitask as well as we think we do — especially when it comes time to learn new material.

Shut it all down. Shut down Facebook, close out Tweetdeck, and say goodbye to raids in WoW this week. If you must — absolutely must — check in with Facebook or Twitter, schedule the time to do so (see #1), and only check in with those services when the schedule tells you to. Trust me when I say that your friends will understand if you’re a little more out of touch than usual (as they should be as well if they’re studying too).

4. Don’t blow off eating.

Just as brain needs sleep to rebuild those important neuronal connections, your brain also needs energy in order to work. Food is how we get energy, so although you think you’re doing a good thing by blowing off breakfast, lunch, whatever, you’re actually handicapping yourself.

Eating also gives you something else that’s important — downtime from studying and a chance to connect with your friends. While you may have to shift your priorities during finals week and hit the books more, that doesn’t mean you should ban all social time. Just do it while you’re doing something else you need to do anyway, like eating.

5. Try rewriting or summarizing your notes & chapters.

Everyone has their own study methods — re-reading (or reading for the first time!) textbook chapters, taking practice quizzes, re-reading one’s class notes. But here’s something you should try if you haven’t yet — rewriting or summarizing both your own classroom notes and the textbook chapters.

How Can I Quit Being Anxious and Have Normal Relationships?

I get so anxious and nervous that it’s hard for me to make friendships. And it’s hard for me to keep friendships. I can’t give presentations in school. I just want my last years of high school to be fun, I want to be able to get through the day without feeling like I’m alone or made a mistake. I want to stop being anxious and feel normal. I feel like I cut myself off from other people because of my fear of rejection and my want it to stop.

A. It sounds as if you are fed up with your anxiety. I find this encouraging because it may signal that you are on the verge of making a positive change in your life

Anxiety is a very common problem. People develop anxiety for multiple reasons. In your case it seems as though it may stem from a lack of self-confidence. You are focused on what other people think of you. Apparently, in your mind, you have established that you are not “good enough” and thus feel anxious.

You are frightened of public speaking. You are not alone. Most people share this fear. Surveys have shown that the fear of public speaking often ranks higher than the fear of death. This means that people are more frightened about the idea of speaking in front of others than they are of their own mortality.

When it comes to public speaking assignments, a common mistake in the thinking students make is that they believe they have to be an “expert” on their assigned topic. The reality is that you are a student who has been assigned (i.e. forced) to give a speech to the class. No one in the classroom, including the teacher and especially the other students, expects you to be an “expert” on your topic. Students are not expected to be experts. You may be putting undue pressure on yourself to be something that you are not (i.e. an expert). Try to have a more realistic mindset. Study the material, learn your speech, share what you have learned about your topic with the class and simply try to be yourself. Do not try to be an “expert.” Don’t try to be something you are not because it will only increase your nervousness. Just try to be yourself and this should decrease your nervousness.

The key to eradicating anxiety is to believe in reality. Anxiety is based on unrealistic fears. Believing in the unrealistic fears is what keeps the anxiety alive. Anxiety thrives on irrationality and illogical thinking. You may believe for instance that you do not make a good impression in front of others and this increases your anxiety. Just because you feel as though something is true does not mean that it is. You may feel as though you do not make a good impression in front of others but what objective evidence do you have to support this assertion? It is important to analyze the facts in every situation. Search for objective evidence and let reality guide your feelings.

If this continues to be an issue, I would recommend seeing a therapist. That would be the most efficient and effective way to deal with your anxiety. You can also speak to the school guidance counselor. Inquire whether he or she has any tips to share with you about how to improve your self-confidence and decrease your anxiety. You may also try reading self-help books.

Curiosity Lane: Mindful Study and 7 More Suggestions for Older Teens and Adults

I’ve been struck by many of the posts from other blogs here on PsychCentral, because their themes sound so familiar to me. Mindfulness, dealing with powerful emotions, setting realistic self-expectations…these are all messages I put out all the time, especially to my older teen and adult learners.

Older learners are more capable of metacognition, which basically means “learning about how you learn.” Mature learners can reflect on their strengths and weaknesses, their learning styles, and their cognitive growth over time.

And chances are they’ve also accumulated fears, negative attitudes, bad habits and self-defeating mindsets.

Here are some of the things I urge my mature learners to do:

Learning Tips for Older Teens and Adults

1. Acknowledge and Respect Your Emotions. Many people have negative emotions surrounding math, writing or other subjects. Notice and accept these emotions. Don’t fight them or berate yourself for having them.

2. Set Aside Perfectionism. Your goal is to learn, not to perform flawlessly.

3. Get Help. Friends, teachers, tutors, help-sessions…seek help wherever it is available. Be active. Reach out. Get your questions answered and your learning needs met.

4. Carve Out Time Every Day. Get into a regular study routine. Use light-assignment days for review or preview.

5. Do Your Assignments Mindfully. Mentally immerse in the material. Feel your brain working hard and enjoy that feeling. Try not to rush or think about the next thing you’re going to be doing.

6. Geek Out. Try to get interested in the material. Do a Google search, check Wikipedia, chat with your teacher.

7. Pace Yourself. Take a break if you become frustrated or mentally fatigued. Come back to hard problems or assignments; they may look easier after a mental rest.

8. Keep Your Eyes on the Prize! Maintain a long-term perspective. Remember how far you’ve come. Feel the satisfaction of personal growth and achievement over time.

Physicians Need Guidelines on Use of Social Media

“Physicians on Twitter” was the subject of a research letter in the Feb. 9 issue of The Journal of the American Medical Association, documenting some instances of unethical and unprofessional content online by doctors.

Up to 3 percent of tweets posted on Twitter in the study were found to be unprofessional — they included profanity, potential patient privacy violations, sexually explicit material, or discriminatory statements.

Researcher Katherine Chretien, M.D., F.A.C.P., associate professor of medicine at the George Washington School of Medicine and Health Sciences, called for greater accountability and guidelines for physicians who are regular users of Twitter.

“This research helped us to identify how physicians are using social media and has helped us gauge whether or not there is need for greater accountability for physicians who use social media,” said Chretien.

“While the majority of tweets were potentially helpful, the ethical breaches and unprofessional content raised a red flag.”

The study, approved by the Washington, D.C., VA Medical Center, was initiated to describe the characteristics of self-identified physicians on Twitter and how they use Twitter, with a specific focus on professionalism.

The researchers examined 5,156 tweets from 260 self-identified physicians with 500 or more followers between May 1 and May 31, 2010.

They found that three percent of the tweets were categorized as “unprofessional,” meaning that they included profanity, potential patient privacy violations, sexually explicit material, or discriminatory statements.

In addition, one percent of the tweets were marked “other unprofessional,” which included unsupported claims about a product they were selling on their Web site or repeated promotions of specific health products.

Ten of these statements about medical therapies countered existing medical knowledge or guidelines, potentially leading to patient harm.

Know what the expectations are for the class

Different professors and teachers have different expectations from their students. While taking good notes and listening in class (and attending as many of the classes as you can) are good starts, you can do one better by spending some time with the instructor or professor’s assistant. Talking to the instructor early on – especially if you foresee a difficult course ahead – will help you understand the course requirements and the professor’s expectations. Maybe most students in the class are expected to get a “C” because the material is so difficult; knowing that ahead of time helps set your expectations, too.

Pay attention in class. If the instructor writes something on the whiteboard or displays it on the screen, it’s important. But if they say something, that’s important too. Copy these things down as they’re presented, but don’t zone out completely from what the instructor is also saying. Some students focus on the written materials without regard for what the instructor is saying. If you write down only one aspect of the professor’s instructions (e.g., just what they write down), you’re probably missing about half the class.

If you get a particularly bad grade on a paper or exam, talk to the instructor. Try and understand where things went wrong, and what you can do in the future to help reduce it from happening again.

Keep healthy and balanced

Keep healthy and balanced

It’s hard to live a balanced life while in school, I know. But the more balance you seek out in your life, the easier every component in your life becomes. If you spend all of your time focusing on a relationship or a game, you can see how easy it is to be out of balance. When you’re out of balance, the things you’re not focusing on – such as studying – become that much harder. Don’t spend all of your time studying – have friends, keep in touch with your family, and find interests outside of school that you can pursue and enjoy.

Finding balance isn’t really something that can be taught, it’s something that comes with experience and simply living. But you can work to try and keep your health and body balanced, by doing what you already know – exercise regularly and eat right. There are no shortcuts to health. Vitamins and herbs might help you in the short-term, but they’re not substitute for real, regular meals and a dose of exercise every now and again (walking to class is a start, but only if you’re spending an hour or two a day doing it).

Look at vitamins and herbs as they are intended – as supplements to your regular, healthy diet. Common herbs – such as ginkgo, ginseng, and gotu kola – may help you enhance mental abilities, including concentration, aptitude, behavior, alertness and even intelligence. But they may not, either, and you shouldn’t rely on them instead of studying regularly.

Take breaks (and rewards!)

Because so many people view studying as a chore or task, it’s human nature to avoid it. If, however, you find rewards to help reinforce what you’re doing, you may be pleasantly surprised by the change you may find in your attitude over time.

Rewards start by chunking study time into manageable components. Studying for 4 hours at a time with no breaks is not realistic or fun for most people. Studying for 1 hour, and then taking a 5 minute break and grabbing a snack is usually more sustainable and enjoyable. Divide study time into segments that make sense and work for you. If you have to digest a whole textbook chapter, find sections in the chapter and commit to reading and taking notes on one section at a time. Maybe you only do one section in a sitting, maybe you do two. Find the limits that seem to work for you.

If you succeed in your goals (such as doing two sections of a chapter in one sitting), give yourself a real reward. Perhaps it’s saying, “I’ll treat myself to some good dessert tonight at dinner,” or “I can buy a new tune online,” or “I can spend an extra 30 minutes gaming for every 2 sections of a book chapter I read.” The point is to find a reward that is small but real, and to stick to it. Some may view this as absurd, since you’re setting limits you can easily ignore. But by setting these limits on your behavior, you’re actually teaching yourself discipline, which will be a handy skill to have throughout life.

Make a schedule you can stick to

Too many people treat studying as the thing to do when you get around to it or have some spare time. But if you schedule study time just as your class time is scheduled, you’ll find it becomes much less of a hassle in the long run. Instead of last-minute cramming sessions, you’ll be better prepared because you haven’t put off all the studying into one 12-hour marathon. Spending 30 or 60 minutes every day you have a class studying for that class before or after is a lot easier and will allow you to actually learn more of the material.

You should study regularly throughout the semester for as many classes as you can. Some people study every day, others put it off to once or twice a week. The frequency isn’t as important as actually studying on a regular basis. Even if you just crack open a book once a week for a class, it’s better than waiting until the first exam in a massive cram session.

Scheduling is even more important if you’re going to be a part of a study group. If only half of your members are committed to a study group for every meeting, then you need to find other study group members who are as committed as you are.

How you approach studying matters

Too many people look at studying as a necessary task, not an enjoyment or opportunity to learn. That’s fine, but researchers have found that how you approach something matters almost as much as what you do. Being in the right mindset is important in order to study smarter.

Sometimes you can’t “force” yourself to be in the right mindset, and it is during such times you should simply avoid studying. If you’re distracted by a relationship issue, an upcoming game, or finishing an important project, then studying is just going to be an exercise in frustration. Come back to it when you’re not focused (or obsessed!) by something else going on in your life.

Way to help improve your study mindset:

• Aim to think positively when you study, and remind yourself of your skills and abilities.
• Avoid catastrophic thinking. Instead of thinking, “I’m a mess, I’ll never have enough time to study for this exam,” look at it like, “I may be a little late to study as much as I’d like, but since I’m doing it now, I’ll get most of it done.”
• Avoid absolute thinking. Instead of thinking “I always mess things up,” the more objective view is, “I didn’t do so well that time, what can I do to improve?”
• Avoid comparing yourself with others, because you usually just end up feeling bad about yourself.

2. Where you study is important

A lot of people make the mistake of studying in a place that really isn’t conducive to concentrating. A place with a lot of distractions makes for a poor study area. If you try and study in your dorm room, for instance, you may find the computer, TV, or a roommate more interesting than the reading material you’re trying to digest.

The library, a nook in a student lounge or study hall, or a quiet coffee house are good places to check out. Make sure to choose the quiet areas in these places, not the loud, central gathering areas. Investigate multiple places on-campus and off-campus, don’t just pick the first one your find as “good enough” for your needs and habits. Finding an ideal study place is important, because it’s one you can reliably count on for the next few years.

3. Bring everything you need, nothing you don’t

Unfortunately, when you find an ideal place to study, sometimes people bring things they don’t need. For instance, while it may seem ideal to type notes into a computer to refer back to later, computers are a powerful distraction for many people because they can do so many different things. Playing games, going online, IM’ing, surfing the Web, and answering emails are all wonderful distractions that have nothing to do with studying. So ask yourself whether you really need a computer to take notes, or whether you can make do with the old-fashioned paper and pen or pencil.

Don’t forget the things you need to study for the class, exam or paper you’re focusing on for the study session. Nothing is more time-consuming and wasteful than having to run back and forth regularly because you forget an important book, paper, or some other resource you need to be successful. If you study best with your favorite music playing, make sure your iPod is with you.

Classroom Environment Impacts 1st Graders’ Mental Health

Classroom environments can affect a child’s mental health, according to a new study that takes into account factors such as inadequate resources or even teachers who feel they are not respected by colleagues.

“Sociologists and other researchers spend a lot of time looking at work environments and how they are linked to the mental health of adults, but we pay less attention to the relationship between kids’ well-being and their ‘work’ environments—namely their schools and more specifically their classrooms,” said sociologist Dr. Melissa A. Milkie, who led the study.

“Our research shows that the classroom environment really matters when it comes to children’s mental health.”

According to Milkie, who co-authored the study with Catharine H. Warner, a sociology Ph.D. candidate at the University of Maryland, policymakers typically measure school quality and teacher effectiveness in terms of academic outcomes such as test scores.

But Milkie said their study demonstrates that schools and teachers also impact children’s mental health, making it a barometer that deserves more attention.

“I think parents care a lot about their children’s mental health—their emotional and behavioral well being—but we as a society don’t tend to focus on that as an important educational outcome nearly as much as we talk about and think about academic outcomes,” said Milkie.

The study relies on a nationally representative sample of approximately 10,700 first graders, whose parents and teachers were interviewed.

As part of their study, the authors considered how the classroom environment impacted four components of mental health: learning (e.g., attentiveness), externalizing problems (e.g., fights), interpersonal behavior (e.g., forming friendships), and internalizing problems (e.g., anxiety and sadness).

Children in classrooms with inadequate material resources and children whose teachers felt their colleagues did not respect them experienced worse mental health across all four measures.

The material resources ranged from basics such as paper, pencils, and heat to child-friendly furnishings, computers, musical instruments and art supplies.

“Being in a classroom with a lack of resources might adversely impact children’s mental health because children are frustrated or disheartened by their surroundings,” Milkie said. “Teachers also may be more discouraged or harsh when they can’t teach properly due to the fact that they are missing key elements.”

Regarding children whose teachers felt their colleagues did not respect them, Milkie suggested there is an adverse trickle-down effect on students.

“For teachers to get the support and encouragement that they need from colleagues, including the principal, is likely important for whether the teachers are able to create a classroom climate that helps children thrive,” Milkie said.

“If teachers are feeling stressed out because they aren’t getting what they need from their colleagues, that stress may carry over to the kids.”